Explain and elaborate the following concepts
1. a. Politeness and Politness formulas
b. Terms of adress
2. a. Dialects and Styles
3. a. Accomodation and audience design
b.Bilingual competence
4. a.Codeswitching and codemixing
b. Pidgins and Creoles
5. a. Language diffusion policy
6. b. linguistics Imperilism or hegemony
jawaban
1. a. Politeness and politeness formulas
Since the communication involves two parties; speaker-writer and listener-reader, bthe communication then become very sensitive to the feelings belong to the both parties. The feelings must be sccounted in the communication. Another example when I ask some to help me, I cannot simply say “Help Me !”, instead of that i will say “ Could you help me, Please ?”. When I use the first utterance to ask for help I possibly hurt the feeling of my listener. I didn’t take my listener’s feeling into account. While the second utterence sound very polite and I take my listener’s feeling into account. So, what politeness essentially consists in is recognation of the listener and his or her right in the situation or politeness are a special way of treating peole, saying and doing things, in such a way as to take into account the others’ person feelings. To indicate the politeness in during communication several politeness formulas are being used. For example in English we have formulas like ‘please’, ‘congratulation’. In Arabic we have ‘mabruk’, ‘allah ybarik fik’, etc. The most common form of poliness formulas are greetings. Greetings set the tone and help establish the relationship between the speakers. Finally, politeness formulas are the utterances or expression used to show/indicates the politeness in communcation.
b. term of adress
term of adress are the term used to shoes the formalization of politeness and status in language. There are many way to shoe the term of adress, it can be the choice of second-person pronoun as in french, German, or in English. In french there are two second- person pronouns namely tu and vous. The vous form was used to adress someone of higher status. Therefore, a servant will use vous to a master and the master will reply with tu to the servant. The same thing happened in German, there are also two second-person pronouns in German du and Sie. Sie form was used to adress someone from higher status as in french. In english there number of ways to show the term adress. One way is by giving some titles (Sir, Your Majesty, Madam, Constable) to the person.
2. a. Dialects and styles
Dialects is language variation which occurs as the result of the geographical location. There are number of peole that speak same language but had different words for the same things or different pronounciations for the same word. For example in Sasak, in Pujut dialect we say ‘sudang’ (alone) while in Selaparang dialect we say ‘mesaq’, in Pujut we ‘meres’(delicious) while in Selaparang we say ‘maiq’ in fact they are belong to one language.Styles is the language variation that take the formality into account. The peole tend to speak differently according to the situation. When the situatian are informal they tend to use more relaxed and less formal languages. They tend to speak not in relaxed way even freeze way in formal situation, however.
b. slang and solidarity
Slang is language variation which is special and secret. It is only used by some limited speakers in particular group. It must not be known by the people from outside the group. Slang shows the solidarity among the groups members. When some one speak a slang of one group it shows that she/he belongs to the particular group. When people speak not in the slang of a group it means that she/he is not the member of the group. Once again slang show to us how important is a language in establishing social identity.
3. a. Accomodation and audience design
audience design is the speakers’ ability to control more than one variety choose a level of speech according to the audience he or she is adressing. We tend to speak an formal style when we speak with our lecture, or during some formal ceremony. But at the same time when our audience are our close friends we tends to use an informal ways to show our closure. Accomodation is the speakers ability to automatically adjust her or his speech to be more like that of her or his interlocutor. In conversations between peoples with differing pronounciation there is common tendency for the pronounciation of the two to move slightly closer together. He or she gradually will modifies his or her speech in the direction of his or her listeners.
b.Bilinguals competence
there are some peoples who lived for some years in the country which speak different language with his/her origin country can speak in two different language. For example the indonesian that lived in USA for ten or twelve years then turn back to indonesia and speak bahasa indonesia. This people are called bilingual because s/he has ability to speak in two differnt language;English and Indonesia. There are also some people who acquired another language after her or his first laguage and she can funtioned actively in the new language. For example, a man that grows in Sasak community then learn bahasa Indonesia and can speak active in both sasak and Bahasa are also called bilingual. The ability communicate in two different language are called bilingual competence.
4. a. Code switching and code mixing
Bilinguals often switch between their two languages in the middle of a conversation. They could turn to speak in language A during her or his conversation in language B. This process are called code switching. The code switching can take place in sentences, words, phrases. Indonesia-English bilingual often switchs English words, phrases, even sentences into his or her indonesian conversation. Cinta Laura for example, she is often switch English into indonesian. Switching are the beginning of borrowing. When the new word words become more integrated in the second language it does not called switcing anymore but it seems to be borrowing. A billingual use that use language A in language B are called switching, when someone from language B who cannot speak language A but use some words or phrases of language A this called borrowing. At this stage the pronounciation and morphology of language A are have been adapted to language B. For example, there are many indonesians that cannot speak English but often uses some english words in her or his conversation.
b. Creoles and Pidgins
Pidgins are the mixture of two or more languages. Sometimes, the grammatical system is based on one language and the vocabulary taken largely from another. Usually the garammar sytems are simpllified from the bases language and some grammar system of the bases language are dropped. A pidgin language evolves in circumstances where the relation between the speakers of different languages are limited, or where there special power situation like salve and masters. Pidgin are leraned informally in contact and used especially as trade language. When the complexity of the pidgin circumstance are growing and it is no longer just contac language, with limited social function it will undergo the creolization process. When pidgin has undergone this process it is not a pidgin anymore but it is a creole.
5. a. Language diffusion policy
there are many languages are spoken in many various countries. For example English which is spoken in almost all part of the world, then French which is spoken in some African countries, Portugues and Spanish which are spoken widely in Latin America. These languages has been spred widely its origin country. Political and military conquest are major causes of language spread. Actually the conquerors did not had the conquered to learn their language. They gave them freedom to choose wheter they want to learn or not. They gave them an open choice. This also happened when a language has been spread by trade, so the spread more or less are unplanned. This unplanned spread of language of language are called language diffusion policy. But when the diffusion are well palnned it is not called language diffusion policy anymore but it is called linguistics imperialism.
b. linguistics Imperilism or hegemony
Linguistics imperialism are deliberate policy of a government or other institutions to spread a language. The recent worl-wide diffusion of english are the example of lingistics imperialism because there are conscious planning by the government of United Kingdom, USA, Canada, South Africa, and Australia.
Reference:
Spolsky, Bernard. Sosiolinguistics. 1998.New York:Oxford University Press.
SOSIOLINGUISTICS
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